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Urban land use zoning

4/16/2014

What is zoning?

Zoning is the practice of allocating different areas of a Town, or City different uses. Zoning is an explicit and legal way of ordering land uses and is the basic tool of urban planning today. Through zoning, local governments have the legal obligation (police power given to them by state goveernments) to relate every piece of private property to all others and to be concerned about the health, safety and well being of the community (http://www.uwec.edu/geography/Ivogeler/w270/zoning-history.htm).

Zoning allows a local government to control and regulate the uses and characteristics of buildings, structures, and land within its boundaries. The authority for zoning is broadly based on a community's police power, allowing for the protection of the public's health, safety, and general welfare (http://archive.cityofpaloalto.org/knowzone/news/details.asp?NewsID=787&TargetID=239#introduction).

History of Zoning

In the United States

1885, Modesto California US: first zoning ordnance in the US was used to restrict laundries and Wash houses (Which all were operated by the Chinese.

1905, Los Angeles California US: The city extended zoning to establish distinctions between residential and industrial areas.
1916, New York City, US: First comprehensive zoning ordinance covering all land use categories and using zoning maps. It established:

1) set-back principle (appearance and height of buildings) and
2) restricted skyscrapers to certain streets. Zoning laws across the USA affected the look of skyscrapers for the next 40 years.

1920s, Many cities followed New York's lead in establishing zoning ordinances and excluding obnoxious or incompatible uses from residential areas, protecting property values and thus changing the value of land based upon the zoning qualifications. The town of Euclid, Ohio passed a zoning ordinance that resulted in devaluation of 68 acres of land.

1960s-1970s Up the 1950s, zoning protected private property; basically a conservative and exclusionary land use tool. Civil rights advocates in the late 1960s argued that zoning discriminated against low income and racial minorities and that was unconstitutional. But the US Supreme Court upheld zoning and therefore the right of private property owners. Historically, the courts have separated private property and civil rights and held that the formers was more important than the latter.

Types of zoning
There are several types of zoning codes in use today and combinations thereof. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the "types" of codes and their respective "formats" or "techniques", so all will be discussed here to some extent (http://archive.cityofpaloalto.org/knowzone/news/details.asp?NewsID=787&TargetID=239#introduction).

Residential zones

Single Detached Residential Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for single family housing.

Low Density Infill Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for retaining single family housing, while allowing some duplex development.

Low Density Redevelopment Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for single family and duplex housing while allowing some apartment or row housing with up to four units.

Residential Small Lot Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for single family housing with attached garages on smaller lots.

Planned Lot Residential Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for single family housing on smaller lots and accessed by a rear lane.

Semi-Detached Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for primarily semi-detached and duplex housing.

Row Housing Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for relatively low to medium density housing, such as row houses or town houses.

Medium Density Multiple Family Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for medium density housing, such as row houses or town houses that may have separate second storey units.

Low Rise Apartment Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for low rise apartment buildings up to four storeys.

Medium Rise Apartment Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for medium rise apartment buildings up to six storeys in height.

High Rise Apartment Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for high rise apartment buildings.

Rural Residential Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for permanent single family residential development in a rural setting.

Urban Character Row Housing Zone

This zone provides for medium density Row Housing in a manner that is characteristic of urban settings and can include more intensive development in the form of, but not limited to, smaller yards, greater height, orientation to a public street, and greater attention to architectural detail. This zone is intended as a transition zone between low and higher density housing.

Commercial zones

Neighbourhood Convenience Commercial Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for convenience commercial and personal service uses, intended to serve the day-to-day needs of residents within the neighbourhood.

Shopping Centre Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for larger shopping centres intended to serve a community or regional area. Residential, office, entertainment and cultural uses may be included in this zone.

Low Intensity Business Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for low intensity commercial, office and service uses located along arterial roadways that border residential areas.

General Business Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for businesses that require large sites and a location with good visibility and accessibility along, or adjacent to major public roadways.

Commercial Mixed Business Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for medium intensity commercial development near capacity transportation nodes.

Highway Corridor Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for high quality commercial development along roads serving as entrance routes to the City.

Commercial Office Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for medium intensity office, commercial and residential development in the inner city, around Light Rail Transit station areas or other locations offering good accessibility by private automobile and transit.

Industrial zones
Industrial Business Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for industrial businesses that carry out their operations such that no nuisance is created or apparent outside an enclosed building, and the use is compatible with any adjacent non-industrial zones.

Light Industrial Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for high quality, light industrial developments and limited accessory outdoor activities. Any nuisance factor associated with these uses will not extend outside an enclosed building.

Medium Industrial Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for manufacturing, processing, assembly, distribution, service and repair uses that carry out part of their operation outdoors or require outdoor storage areas. Any nuisance associated with these uses should not extend beyond the site.

Heavy Industrial Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for industrial uses that due to their appearance, noise, odour, risk of toxic emissions, or fire and explosion hazards are incompatible with residential, commercial, and other land uses.

Urban Services zones

Urban Service Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for publicly and privately owned facilities which provide institutional or community services.

Public Utility Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for a system or utilities that are used to benefit the public, such as water, sewage disposal, electric power, heating, waste management, drainage, public transportation and telecommunications.

Public Parks Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for an area of public land for recreational uses.

Natural Areas Protection Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for the conservation, preservation and restoration of identified natural areas, features and ecological processes.

River Valley Activity Node Zone

This zone provides the opportunity for limited commercial development for recreation and tourism uses within designated areas of parkland along the river, creeks and ravines.

Benefits of zoning

Stabilize and increase property values, particularly residential properties,
Relieve and check congestion in the streets and neighbourhoods,
Increase safety and enhance security and adminstration of secuirity services in buildings and residential neighbourhoods,
Make business more efficient by ensuring there is order, and
Make life healthier by increasing the quality and aesthetic values of a locality, neighbourhood, city or town.

Sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoning
http://www.edmonton.ca/city_government/urban_planning_and_design/rezoning.aspx
http://www.cincinnati-oh.gov/planning/zoning/
http://www.uwec.edu/geography/Ivogeler/w270/zoning-history.htm
http://archive.cityofpaloalto.org/knowzone/news/details.asp?NewsID=787&TargetID=239
http://www.nairobi.go.ke/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=163:bylaws&catid=65:about-us&Itemid=156
http://www.virtualkenya.org/maps/map-images/524-map-of-land-use-change-from-residential-to-commercial-city-of-nairobi-2008-2010
http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/en-us/planningyourlocalarea/mappingstandardsandrequirements.aspx

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Indicators in Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E)

4/15/2014

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What is an Indicator?

An indicator can be defined as follows:

Signs or signals demonstrating whether a project or program is achieving desired results.
A benchmark or variable usually in quantitative or qualitative form used to observe progress and measure extent to which a program's or a project's outcomes and objectives are being met or have been met.
They are directly linked to meauring progress towards program or project objectives.
Particular characteristics or dimensions used to measure intended changes.

Types of Indicators (Performance indicators)

Input indicators
This type of indicators measure the quantity, quality and timeliness of resources-human, financial and material technological and information provided for a project, program or activity.

Process indicators
These measure the progress of activities in a program or project.

Output indicators
Output indicators measure the quantity, quality and timeliness of the products (goods or services) that are the result of an activity, project or program.

Outcome indicators
They measure the intermediate results generated by programme outputs. Correspond to any change in people's behaviour as a result of project or program activities.

Characteristics of a good indicator

Plausible: A good indicator ought to measure what is important in the project or program.
Attributable: A good indicator measures changes caused by the project or program.
Cost-effective: A good indicator employs inexpensive methods of data gathering.
Targeted: How much? What kind of? By when?
Verifiable: Reach agreement on results.

Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVIs)

Objectively verifiable indicators are signs or signals demonstrating whether each level of the vertical logic is or is not being achieved.
They must be valid, reliable, precise, cost-effective and stated independently from other levels. They ought to make clear how the target group will benefit from the realisation of outputs. Indicators should be specific in terms of: Quantity, Quality, Time, Target group and place.

Examples of Indicators

Environmental Indicators
Air indicators

Number of complaints about air quality per year.
Particulate matter in the air.
Air quality index.
Carbon Dioxide emissions from transportation.
Carbon Dioxide emissions by source.
Ratio of SO2 and smoke levels to EC limits (e.g. Iceland volcanic eruption).
Emissions of Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
Air quality: CO, SO2, SPM and O3 measurements.
Number of days air pollutants exceed healthful levels.

Awareness Indicators

Number of participants in lets say an environmental farm plan program.
Percentage of the population who percieve pollution a priority.
Number of environmental education programs for communities.
Number of students passing environmental education test.
Number of environmental education programs at elementary school level.

Biodiversity indicators

Number of species at risk of lets say extinction
Proportion of species approaching target population size
Black rhino population
Number of elephants
Population of endemic species for which the region has key custodial role.
Human-wildlife conflict e.g. number of sheep killed by lets say Leopards in Kajiado County.

Land use indicators

Acres of land under integrated pest management.
Land use patterns.
Agricultural land loss as a result of desertification.
Open land lost to development in square KM.
Total area in significant land-use categories.
Number of acres of major terrestrial ecosystems.
Acre of cropland that have been converted to developed land.
Acreage of land used for streets.
Land area used for parks and wildlife reserves.
Forest land acres.
Loss of primary forests/ total primary forests remaining.
Number of acres of public open space.
Number of trees on public property.
Acres of environmentally sensitive areas.

Soil indicators

Soil organic matter content.
Soil erosion per acre of cropland.
Area of land affected by soil erosion and salinity.

Surface water indicators

Percentage of estuarine areas not suitable for shellfish harvesting.
Quality of river water entering the country/quality leaving the country.
Number of days all beaches are open for swimming.
Percentage of sreams for clean drinking water.
Fecal coliform count in surface water.
Miles of rivers not suitable for fishing due to toxins.
Percentage area of lakes fully suitalble for subsitence use.
Index of watershed naturalness.
Bernie Fowler's Sneaker Index-water clarity.
Compliance with dissolved oxygen standards.
River compliance with metals water standards.
Phosphorous concentration in county streams.

Groundwater Indicators

Water levels in acquifer wells.
Monitored wells showing groundwater contamination.
Groundwater quality index.
New septic tank permits.

Wetlands Indicators

Acres of natural and restored wetlands.
Size and distribution of significant wetlands.

Health Indicators

Oral rehydration therapy use rate.
Percent of households storing drinking water safely.
Percent of households using improved toilet facility.
Percent of households with access to an improved source of drinking water.
Percent of children aged 12-23 months fully immunized before 12 months.
Contraceptive use among married women 15-49, Total traditional methods (%).
Contraceptive use among single sexually active women aged 15-19, modern methods (%).
Contraceptive use among single sexually active women ages 20-24, modern methods (%).
Women ages 20-24 giving birth by age 18 (%).
Most recent births occuring less than 24 months after prior births (%).
Knowledge of family planning among married women 15-49, modern methods (%).
Demand for family planning satisfied (%).
HIV/AIDS among adult population ages 15-49 (%).
HIV/AIDS among males ages 15-49 (%).
HIV/AIDS among females ages 15-49 (%) among other indicators not mentioned.

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Environmental Impact Assessment (E.I.A)

4/9/2014

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Introduction

EIA is a systematic examination conducted to determine whether or not an activity or project will have any adverse impact on the environment. It is designed to Identify, Interpret, predict and communicate information about the impact of a project. It is a critical and objective examination of the impacts of a project on the environment before its implementation. The term impact describes both negative and positive environmental influences caused by a project.

Functions of E.I.A

Ensures that decisions on proposed actions take the environment into consideration.
Identify impacts of a project on the environment.
Predict likely changes on the environment as a result of development.
Evaluate the various alternatives (options) to the project.
Propose mitigation measures for the significant negative impacts.
Generate baseline data for monitoring, auditing and evaluation.
Highlight environmental issues with a view to guiding policy makers, planners, stakeholders and government agencies to make sustainable decisions.

Core values of E.I.A

Sustainability- the EIA process will result in environmental safeguards.
Integrity- the EIA process will conform to agreed standards.
Utility- the EIA process provides balanced, credible information for decision making.

Guiding Principles of E.I.A

Participation- appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested and affected parties.
Transparency- all assessment decisions, and their basis, should be open and accessible.
Certainty- the process and timing of assessment should be agreed in advance and followed by all participants.
Accountability- decision makers are responsible to all parties for their actions and decisions under the assessment process.
Credibility- assessments are undertaken with professionalism and objectively.
Cost effectiveness- the assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at the least cost to society
Flexibility- the assessment process should be able to adopt to deal effectively with any proposal or decision making situation.
Practicality- the information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily usable in decision making and by planners
Precautionary principle.

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Urban land use zoning

Indicators in Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E)

What is an Indicator?

Types of Indicators (Performance indicators)

Characteristics of a good indicator

Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVIs)

Examples of Indicators

Environmental Impact Assessment (E.I.A)

Introduction

Functions of E.I.A

Core values of E.I.A

Guiding Principles of E.I.A

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